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The first study to show that individual differences in change in neuroticism predicts mortality. Borderline personality disorder occurs in most people by early adulthood. There is a paucity of true cross-cultural longitudinal research, since most longitudinal studies arise from the United States or Europe. The studies conducted to explain the role of problem solving in relation to personality disorders are very recent and insufficient in number.
Moreover, mean-level change in personality traits occurs in middle and old age, showing that personality traits can change at any age. The symptoms of the disease have been described in medical literature for over 3,000 years, but the disease has only really begun increasing in visibility over the past 30 years. Current psychiatry reports, 17 1 , 534. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition DSM-5 , published by the American Psychiatric Association, is used to diagnose conditions such as BPD, and by insurance companies to reimburse for treatment of the condition.
Together, these studies have established that the Big Five traits show unmistakable variability across individuals in direction and rate of change. For example, a difference who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Aggression, apathy, passivity and memory loss can occur with damage to either side of the brain. One such dimension is the compulsive-impulsive dimension, with compulsivity being performance of unpleasantly repetitive behaviors in order to prevent some negative consequence, and impulsivity being the resistance to carry out rapid, unplanned actions in response to internal or external stimuli, with little consideration of the negative consequences that might occur as a result. Measurement, correlates, and health outcomes of medication adherence among seniors. Assessment of irrational health beliefs: Relation to health practices and medical piece adherence. 
Sudden Personality Changes in Adults - The parents' patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child.
We are experimenting with display styles that make it easier to read articles in PMC. The ePub format is best viewed in the iBooks reader. You may notice problems with the display of certain parts of an article in other eReaders. Generating an ePub file may take a long time, please be patient. Objectives Personality factors parsimoniously capture the variation in dispositional characteristics that affect behaviours, but their value in predicting medication non-adherence is unclear. We investigated the relationship between five-factor model personality factors Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Extraversion, and Openness and medication non-adherence among older participants during a six-year randomized placebo-controlled trial RCT. Methods Random effects logistic regression analyses examined effects of NEO Five-Factor Inventory scores on medication non-adherence, determined via pill counts every 6 months median follow-up 6. Analyses adjusted for covariates linked with non-adherence in prior studies. Results Each 5 year increment in participant age was associated with a 6. Neuroticism was the only personality factor associated with non-adherence: a 1 SD increase was associated with a 3. Lower cognitive function was also associated with non-adherence: a 1 SD decrease in mental status exam score was associated with a 3. Health is profoundly influenced by personality, a relationship most established with the five-factor model FFM of personality ; ;. FFM factors — Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness — are empirically derived clusters of dispositional tendencies that parsimoniously capture the major axes of psychological and behavioural variation in humans ;. FFM factors have been linked with many health-related behaviours and outcomes ; ; ; , including medication non-adherence. Prior studies examining associations between FFM personality factors and medication non-adherence Medication non-adherence is common and associated with suboptimal health outcomes ; ; ; Vik et al. Commonly studied correlates of non-adherence — increasing age, male gender, non-white race, lower income, depressive symptoms, obesity, smoking, cognitive impairment, disease burden, and lower social support ; ; ; ; ; — explain only part of the variance in adherence behaviour. Disparate studies have linked non-adherence both with general psychological stress and health- and treatment-related cognitions, such as illness perceptions, self-efficacy, and perceived medication necessity and effectiveness. FFM factors efficiently capture much of the variance in these characteristics and thus may help unify the diffuse literature on this topic ; ;. The 10 prior studies exploring associations between FFM factors and medication non-adherence had relatively small sample sizes, wide variation in participant health conditions, and yielded mixed findings. Non-adherence has been associated with lower levels of Conscientiousness in six studies, higher levels of Neuroticism in three studies, and lower levels of Agreeableness and Extraversion in one study each. All but one study focused on samples with mean ages in range of 20—50 years, so their applicability to older adults is unclear. All studies were either cross-sectional or longitudinal lasting 1 year or less. Finally, prior FFM analyses failed to account for most of the aforementioned covariates commonly associated with non-adherence, so it is unclear whether FFM factors are independently associated with medication non-adherence at any age. To address these limitations, we examined the relationship of FFM factors to medication non-adherence in a subset of participants in the six year Ginkgo Evaluation of Memory GEM study. Based on the literature summarized above, we hypothesized medication non-adherence would be significantly associated with lower levels of Conscientiousness e. For the remaining FFM factors, we did not have specific hypotheses, since they exhibited little consistent relationship with non-adherence in prior studies. Methods Details of the GEM study have been published elsewhere. The study was conducted under an investigational new drug application with the Food and Drug Administration under the auspices of the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine NCCAM and registered at clinicaltrials. The main finding of the GEM study was that Ginkgo biloba had no impact on the development of dementia. While eligible subjects were recruited at four sites between 2000 and 2002, for this sub-study examining the relationship between personality and non-adherence, only subjects at the University of California, Davis UCD site were recruited, after consenting to the additional data collection. Key study enrolment criteria included: age over 72 years, availability of proxy respondent, English as usual language, and absence of significant morbidity. Details regarding the study enrolment criteria and recruitment process have been presented elsewhere ;. A total of 916 subjects were randomized to receive either G. Thus, only 771 84. Subjects at the UCD site had characteristics similar to those at the other sites. Subjects received follow-up study assessment visits, during which research measures were completed and pill counts were conducted, every 6 months until study conclusion closeout visit October 2007—April 2008 , a maximum of 7. FFM factors were measured with the NEO Five-Factor Inventory NEO-FFI , a well-validated 60-item self-report questionnaire with 12 items measuring each of the five personality domains range of scores for each factor, 12—60;. The prior use of the NEO-FFI in gerontology and geriatric psychiatry research attests to its reliability and applicability to samples of older adults ; ;. Medication non-adherence Study medication pills G. Non-adherence was determined by pill counts conducted by the research assistant at each six monthly study follow-up assessment visit. The per cent of total pills prescribed that had been missed since the prior study follow-up visit was recorded. Other measures Cognitive function was measured with the Modified Mini-Mental State Examination 3MSE;. Compared with the original Mini-Mental State Exam, the 3MSE incorporates four additional test items, offers more graded scoring 0—100 instead of 0—30, with higher scores indicating better function , and is more sensitive. Depressive symptoms were measured with the 10-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale CES-D , a well-validated measure commonly used with elderly samples. Scores range from 0 to 30, with higher scores indicating more depressive symptoms. Analyses Data were analysed using Stata Version 11. Key non-adherence analyses were conducted using random effects logistic regression analyses adjusting for the nesting of repeated measurements on each participant, with non-adherence versus adherence at each visit as the dependent variable. The distribution of non-adherence scores was highly skewed, precluding use of mean non-adherence scores in analyses. Thus, at each study follow-up assessment, non-adherence was defined as missing more than 20% of prescribed pills. Although this threshold is commonly employed in research , it is also somewhat arbitrary, since for most medications the level of adherence required for optimal treatment effects has not been characterized. These analyses revealed similar findings to the main analyses and so are not reported here, but are available from the authors upon request. We examined a series of hierarchically nested analytic models. All models adjusted for the exogenous variables visit number and treatment assignment. Model 1 included the five FFM personality factors, standardized to a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one to facilitate interpretation. Model 3 added all remaining covariates that may be influenced by personality and affect non-adherence ; ; ;. To facilitate interpretation of the results of the logistic regression analyses, associations are presented as adjusted average marginal effects AME. The AME is the average change in probability of non-adherence associated with a unit change in the predictor. We also conducted likelihood-ratio tests to examine the significance of the cluster of variables added to each model compared with the prior model; for Model 1, the test reflects the addition of the FFM personality variables to a model including only study group and study follow-up visit. Sensitivity analyses examined the roles of co-morbid medical conditions, considered as dichotomous variables present vs. Analyses also examined interactions between personality factors and the other independent variables. Finally, to examine the possible impact of study drop-out due to diagnosis of dementia, the study end-point; death; or refusal to continue participating , a Cox proportional hazards survival analysis was conducted with time to dropping out as the survival interval, and all the above described variables as predictors. Results shows the characteristics of participants at baseline. The sample ranged in age from 72—91 years, and was predominantly non-Hispanic White and well educated. Drop-outs were due to dementia, the study end-point 132 ; death 93 ; and refusal to continue participating 32. There were no statistically significant differences between those assigned to Ginkgo or placebo on any of the variables assessed in the study. Baseline characteristics of study sample summarizes the results of the three random effects logistic regression analyses, showing the adjusted predictors of non-adherence as AMEs, expressed in percentages. Not shown, non-a