BASIC INSTRUMENTATION
MEASURING DEVICES
AND
BASIC PID CONTROL
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control i
CNSC Technical Training Group
Revision 1 January 2003
Table of Contents
Section 1 - OBJECTIVES.................................................................... 3
Section 2 - INSTRUMENTATION EQUIPMENT ...................... 7
2.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 7
2.1 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT .................................................... 7
2.1.1 General Theory ................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Pressure Scales.................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Pressure Measurement ........................................................ 8
2.1.4 Common Pressure Detectors............................................... 9
2.1.5 Differential Pressure Transmitters .................................... 11
2.1.6 Strain Gauges.................................................................... 13
2.1.7 Capacitance Capsule ......................................................... 14
2.1.8 Impact of Operating Environment .................................... 15
2.1.9 Failures and Abnormalities ............................................... 16
2.2 FLOW MEASUREMENT........................................................... 18
2.2.1 Flow Detectors .................................................................. 18
2.2.2 Square Root Extractor....................................................... 25
2.2.3 Density Compensating Flow Detectors ............................ 29
2.2.4 Flow Measurement Errors................................................. 31
2.3 LEVEL MEASUREMENT ......................................................... 33
2.3.1 Level Measurement Basics ............................................... 33
2.3.2 Three Valve Manifold...................................................... 34
2.3.3 Open Tank Measurement.................................................. 36
2.3.4 Closed Tank Measurement ............................................... 36
2.3.5 Bubbler Level Measurement System ............................... 42
2.3.6 Effect of Temperature on Level Measurement ................. 44
2.3.7 Effect of Pressure on Level Measurement ....................... 47
2.3.8 Level Measurement System Errors.................................. 47
2.4 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT......................................... 49
2.4.1 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)......................... 49
2.4.2 Thermocouple (T/C) ........................................................ 52
2.4.3 Thermal Wells.................................................................. 54
2.4.4 Thermostats......................................................................... 55
2.5 NEUTRON FLUX MEASUREMENT ....................................... 59
2.5.1 Neutron Flux Detection..................................................... 59
2.5.2 Neutron Detection Methods.............................................. 60
2.5.3 Start-up (sub-critical) Instrumentation............................. 61
2.5.4 Fission neutron detectors .................................................. 63
2.5.5 Ion chamber neutron detectors......................................... 64
2.5.6 In-Core Neutron Detectors............................................... 70
2.5.7 Reactor Control at High Power......................................... 77
2.5.8 Overlap of Neutron Detection........................................... 78
REVIEW QUESTIONS - EQUIPMENT ............................................. 81
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control ii
CNSC Technical Training Group
Revision 1 January 2003
Section 3 - CONTROL................................................................... 89
3.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 89
3.1 BASIC CONTROL PRINCIPLES .............................................. 89
3.1.1 Feedback Control.............................................................. 91
3.1.2 Feedforward Control........................................................ 91
3.1.3 Summary ........................................................................... 92
3.2 ON/OFF CONTROL ................................................................... 93
3.2.1 Summary ........................................................................... 94
3.3 BASIC PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ...................................... 95
3.3.1 Summary .......................................................................... 97
3.4 Proportional Control ................................................................... 98
3.4.1 Terminology..................................................................... 98
3.4.2 Practical Proportional Control ......................................... 98
3.4.3 Summary ......................................................................... 105
3.5 Reset of Integral Action............................................................. 106
3.5.1 Summary ......................................................................... 109
3.6 RATE OR DERIVATIVE ACTION ........................................ 110
3.6.1 Summary ......................................................................... 115
3.7 MULTIPLE CONTROL MODES............................................. 116
3.8 TYPICAL NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL SCHEMES 117
3.8.1 Level Control .................................................................. 117
3.8.2 Flow Control ................................................................... 118
3.8.3 Pressure Control............................................................. 119
3.8.4 Temperature Control....................................................... 120
REVIEW QUESTIONS - CONTROL ...................................... 122
Note
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control 3
CNSC Technical Training Group
Revision 1 January 2003
OBJECTIVES
This module covers the following areas pertaining to instrumentation and
control.
• Pressure
• Flow
• Level
• Temperature
• Neutron Flux
• Control
At the end of training the participants will be able to:
Pressure
• explain the basic working principle of pressure measuring devices,
bourdon tube, bellows, diaphragm, capsule, strain gauge,
capacitance capsule;
• explain the basic operation of a differential pressure transmitter;
• explain the effects of operating environment (pressure,
temperature, humidity) on pressure detectors;
• state the effect of the following failures or abnormalities:
over-pressuring a differential pressure cell or bourdon tube;
diaphragm failure in a differential pressure cell;
blocked or leaking sensing lines; and
loss of loop electrical power.
Flow
• explain how devices generate a differential pressure signal: orifice,
venturi, flow nozzle, elbow, pitot tube, annubar;
• explain how each of the following will affect the indicated flow
signal from each of the above devices:
change in process fluid temperature;
change in process fluid pressure; and
erosion.
• identify the primary device, three-valve manifold and flow;
transmitter in a flow measurement installation;
• state the relationship between fluid flow and output signal in a
flow control loop with a square root extractor;
• describe the operation of density compensating flow detectors;
• explain why density compensation is required in some flow
measurements;
• state the effect on the flow measurement in process with
abnormalities: Vapour formation in the throat, clogging if throat by
foreign material, Leaks in HI or LO pressure sensing lines;
Note
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control 4
CNSC Technical Training Group
Revision 1 January 2003
Level
• explain how a level signal is derived for: an open vessel, a
closed vessel with dry reference leg, a closed vessel with wet
reference leg;
• explain how a DP cell can be damaged from over pressure if it
is not isolated correctly;
• explain how a bubbler derives level signal for an open and
closed tank;
• explain the need for zero suppression and zero elevation in level
measurement installations;
• describe the effects of varying liquid temperature or pressure on
level indication from a differential pressure transmitter;
• explain how errors are introduced into the DP cell signal by
abnormalities: leaking sensing lines, dirt or debris in the sensing
lines;
Temperature
• explain the principle of operation of temperature detectors: RTD,
thermocouple, bimetallic strip & pressure cylinders;
• state the advantages and disadvantages of RTDs and
thermocouples
• state the effect on the indicated temperature for failures, open
circuit and short circuit;
Flux
• state the reactor power control range for different neutron sensors
and explain why overlap is required: Start-up instrumentation, Ion
Chambers, In Core detectors;
• explain how a neutron flux signal is derived in a BF3 proportional
counter;
• explain the reasons for start-up instrumentation burn-out;
• explain how a neutron flux signal is derived in an ion chamber;
• state the basic principles of operation of a fission chamber
radiation detector;
• state and explain methods of gamma discrimination for neutron ion
chambers;
• explain how the external factors affect the accuracy of the ion
chambers neutron flux measurement: Low moderator level, Loss
of high voltage power supply, Shutdown of the reactor;
• describe the construction and explain the basic operating principle
of in-core neutron detectors;
• explain reactor conditions factors can affect the accuracy of the incore
detector neutron flux measurement: Fuelling or reactivity
device movement nearby, Start-up of the reactor, long-term
exposure to neutron flux, Moderator poison (shielding);
Note
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control 5
CNSC Technical Training Group
Revision 1 January 2003
• explain the reasons for power control using ion chambers at low
power and in-core detectors at high power;
Control
• identify the controlled and manipulated variables;
• sketch a simple block diagram and indicate set point,
measurement, error, output and disturbances;
• state the difference between open and closed loop control;
• state the basic differences between feedback and feed forward
control;
• explain the general on/off control operation;
• explain why a process under on/off control is not controllable at
the set point;
• explain why on/off control is suitable for slow responding
processes;
• explain the meaning of proportional control in terms of the
relationship between the error signal and the control signal;
• explain why offset will occur in a control system, with
proportional control only;
• choose the controller action for corrective control;
• convert values of PB in percentage to gain values and vice-versa;
• determine the relative magnitude of offset with respect to the
proportional band setting;
• state the accepted system response, i.e., ¼ decay curve, following a
disturbance;
• explain the reason for the use of reset (integral) control and its
units;
• sketch the open loop response curve for proportional plus reset
control in response to a step disturbance;
• state two general disadvantages of reset control with respect to
overall loop stability and loop response if the control setting is
incorrectly adjusted;
• calculate the reset action in MPR or RPM given a control systems
parameters;
• state, the purpose of rate or derivative control;
• state the units of derivative control;
• justify the use of rate control on slow responding processes such
as heat exchangers;
• explain why rate control is not used on fast responding
processes.
• sketch the open loop response curve for a control system with
proportional plus derivative control modes;
• state which combinations of the control modes will most likely
be found in typical control schemes;
Note
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control 6
CNSC Technical Training Group
Revision 1 January 2003
• sketch typical control schemes for level, pressure, flow and
temperature applications.
Note
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control 7
CNSC Technical Training Group
Revision 1 January 2003
INSTRUMENTATION EQUIPMENT
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some plant parameter,
pressure, flow, level or temperature to name a few and supplying a signal
that is proportional to the measured parameter. The output signals are
standard signal and can then be processed by other equipment to provide
indication, alarms or automatic control. There are a number of standard
signals; however, those most common in a CANDU plant are the 4-20 mA
electronic signal and the 20-100 kPa pneumatic signal.
This section of the course is going to deal with the instrumentation
equipment normal used to measure and provide signals. We will look at
the measurement of five parameters: pressure, flow, level, temperature,
and neutron flux.
2.1 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
This module will examine the theory and operation of pressure detectors
(bourdon tubes, diaphragms, bellows, forced balance and variable
capacitance). It also covers the variables of an operating environment
(pressure, temperature) and the possible modes of failure.
2.1.1 General Theory
Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in the
power plant. It includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water
pressure, condenser pressure, lubricating oil pressure and many more.
Pressure is actually the measurement of force acting on area of surface.
We could represent this as:
Pressure Force
Area
P F
or A
The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) in
British units or Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000
Pa, we often use kPa and MPa as units of pressure.
2.1.2 Pressure Scales
Before we go into how pressure is sensed and measured, we have to
establish a set of ground rules. Pressure varies depending on altitude above
sea level, weather pressure fronts and other conditions.
The measure of pressure is, therefore, relative and pressure measurements
are stated as either gauge or absolute.
Note
Science and Reactor Fundamentals Instrumentation & Control 8
